Views of Karl Marx and John Stuart Mill Essay examples

None of the supposed rights of man go beyond the egoistic man, man as he is a member of civil society; that is, an individual separated from the community, withdrawn into himself, wholly preoccupied with his private interests and acting in accordance with his private caprice. Karl Marx, On the Jewish Question The only freedom which deserves the name, is that of pursuing our own good in our own way, so long as we do not attempt to deprive others of theirs, or impede their efforts to obtain it. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty While, after reading the above two quotations, it may appear that Karl Marx and John Stuart Mill take seemingly opposing views on the proper†¦show more content†¦The real truth, however, falls somewhere between these two poles. Mill on the Individual Mill wastes no time in articulating the central thesis of On Liberty; he states, Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign (69). Mill, then, does not make the individual more important than society, but he separates the individual from society and articulates a realm of existence in which society, or the community, should have no power over the individual. Mill states, The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number is self-protectionÂ…His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant (68). Society, therefore, has no right to intervene in the private life of any person, unless they act in such a way that prevents others from enjoying their own rights. Mill is extremely clear as to why the individual should be sovereign over his or her body and mindÂâ€"to counter the effects of a possible tyranny of the majority. Mill states, It (the majority) practices a social tyranny more formidable than many kinds of political oppression, since, though not usually upheld by such extreme penalties, it leaves fewer means of escape, penetrating much more deeply into the details of life, and enslaving the soul itself (63).Show MoreRelatedKarl Marx And John Stuart Mill Essay1576 Words   |  7 PagesKarl Marx and John Stuart Mill were both philosophers who lived in the 1800s. Beginning with Karl Marx, he was a German philosopher, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. In his adult years, Marx was not recognized as a citizen of any country even though he was born in Germany and he spent most of his years in London, England. There, he continued to evolve his philosophy and social thought in participation or collaboration with a German thinker cal led Friedrich Engels. They worked together andRead MoreGovernment And Societal Ideas From The 19th Century1232 Words   |  5 PagesCentury, three prominent thinkers John Stuart Mill, Giuseppe Mazzini, and Karl Marx had their own ideas of an ideal society. These individuals had their own unique view of the perfect society. However, they all have something in common with their visions: all of these excerpts discussed an oppressive entity. In all of the three ideal societies concocted by these men, tyrannical governments or oppressive societies are obstacles to their visions. In the excerpt from John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty, he discussesRead MoreMarx, Mill And Freud s Critique Of Political Economy And The Communist Manifesto Essay1133 Words   |  5 Pagesmerely implicit) notions of freedom and unfreedom we find in the texts we have read by Marx, Mill and Freud. Use the esoteric traditions we have examined thus far (from the Book of Job to Plato) as a comparative yardstick, or point of reference, but without letting them take over the foreground in your paper -- the latter should be reserved for these three figures. Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud, and John Stuart Mill are three authors who tackle the topic of freedom in unique ways, but their messages areRead MoreTyranny And The Social Wellbeing Of Citizens1750 Words   |  7 Pages19th century, in the age after the French Revolution, the vast majority of political and philosophical thinkers concerned themselves at some point with the issue of tyranny in society. Such writers spanned from Alexis de Tocqueville, to John Stuart Mill, to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The interpretations and approaches taken to the subject of tyranny and how to protect against it, though, were as varied as the collection of authors who addressed it. From de Tocqueville’s stringent observationsRead More A Comparison of the Economic Philosophies of Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, and Karl Marx1781 Words   |  8 PagesSmith (18th Century), John Stuart Mill (19th Century), and Karl Marx (19th Century) are of the same cloth, but in modern terms their community is re ferenced as a government, and they each have their own distinct opinions on the drive instilled within human nature that shape their personal economic theories. I will be dissecting the views of each of these economists, in regards to the role of government within their envisioned society. While showcasing the difference in views, I want to focus onRead MoreCritical Writing Assigment 41874 Words   |  8 Pageswhich leaned somewhat to laissez-faire economics, the interpretation of John Stuart Mill, which was complex and indecisive, and the interpretation of Karl Marx, which argued against the concept of a free market. The essay concludes by discussing the complexity of the debate and the unanswered questions it still presents to modern economists. Keywords: free market, free market system, David Ricardo, John Stuart Mill, Karl Marx Introduction The majority of classical economists based their workRead MoreMasterpieces Always Come With Good Reasons And Fantastic1716 Words   |  7 Pagesexcellent works. I. On Liberty by John Stuart Mill In his work On Liberty, Mill starts from historical facts, analysing facts using his reasons and gets his conclusions; then, changing his way he used to use, he starts from fictions that made by himself and are different or totally opposite to those historical facts, and gets an opposite conclusions, thus reinforcing his conclusions extracted from facts. And we shall see a lot of examples in his work. When Mill talks about the liberty of beliefRead MorePostmoderntiy: a Break from Modernity1903 Words   |  8 Pagesdefinitive and it’s up to the writers to clarify their particular usage. (Gibbins Reimer, 1996, p. 8) As such, the meaning of â€Å"post† in this paper refers a â€Å"break from†, â€Å"opposition to†, â€Å"difference to and from† and a response to†. Works of Karl Marx and John Stuart Mill; Friedrich Nietzsche and Michel Foucault will prove that there is break between Modernity and Postmodernity. Modernity Modernity refers to a way of life and state of mind that experience progressive economic and administrativeRead MoreJeremy Bentham And Utilitarianism1461 Words   |  6 Pageswould not conclude to start a food fight. Bentham taught his teachings to one of his disciples John Stuart Mill. Just as Bentham, Mill believed in utilitarianism and advocated it throughout his beliefs. He advocated for women’s suffrage, which does produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Classless Philosophy At the same time, Karl Marx advocated for a different view of society. Karl Marx (1818-1838) was a Prussian philosopher who noticed the great gap between the rich and the poorRead MoreMy Life I Have Been Exposed With Little Diversity Essay2146 Words   |  9 Pageswould change my perspective on freedom entirely). Throughout the term nearly all the books had a theme of freedom, however, five stood out in particular Democracy and Its Global Roots by Amartya Sen, On Liberty by John Stuart Mill and The Republic by Plato, The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels and Omelas by Ursula le Guin. Throughout the semester Human Experience gave me the opportunity to branch out from my credulous past and learn more struggles that occurred for society to be

Critique Steps (Understanding Quantitative Research)

OUTLINE OF BASIC CRITIQUE STEPS (understanding quantitative research): Brink and Wood (1994), and Burnes and Groves (1997), similarly describe the steps for quantitative nursing research process and methods. The authors include not only the basic steps to conduct nursing studies, but also translating the studies into articles for publication. According to Burnes Groves (1997), and Hamric and Spross (1992), the quantitative research method is used to describe or gain more information, test relationships, examine cause and effect relationships, and uses numeric data to answer problems. The following is a basic outline of what is included in nursing research study, and what you should critique a study for: 1. Purpose a. Usually found†¦show more content†¦a. Dependent variable-Response, behavior, or outcome the researcher wants to explain. b. Independent variable-The treatment or experimental variable manipulated by the researcher to create an effect on the dependent variable. NOTE: One easy way of differentiating between these variables is to remember that independent means standing alone, and dependent means relying on something. Don t let statistics scare you! If you are a novice at article critique, work on being able to find the sample adequately represented in an included table, chart or graph. Take small steps! 5. Findings/Nursing Implications/ Conclusions: a. The findings and conclusions should be relevant, useable, and generated from the study. b. Suspect bias if questionable generalizability, sample defect, or weak design. NOTE: Don t expect perfection! Every report might offer something useful, ideas you can use, improve, or develop! POLISHING THE CRITIQUE Remember that all research is subject to a critique. But until you, the reader have critiqued the report, you have no way of knowing if the study is based on good, systematic research principles. Follow the above outline next time you read a nursing research article. Jot down the outline headings (purpose, sample, methods, data analysis, and nursing implications). And find the content from the article you chose to read. For the first couple of studies, critique the article backwards and forwards. This is time well spent because youShow MoreRelatedA Research Study On Sedation Management799 Words   |  4 PagesResearch Critique The design of both quantitative and qualitative research offer valuable information to the health sciences. There are circumstances when certainty is necessary, and a quantitative design is needed. In contrast, there are times when an understanding of the quality of a particular social interaction is needed. The paper will apply a quantitative and a qualitative research article to the topic of sedation management to help validate meaning gleaned from two different research designsRead MoreA Quantitative Style Analysis About Different English Translations Of The Captains Daughter By Alexander Pushkin1176 Words   |  5 PagesQiuying Jiang 11/03/2017 Programming for Cultural Data Analysis - Proposal A Quantitative Style Analysis about Different English Translations of the Captain’s Daughter by Alexander Pushkin Data Set The data set includes three English translations of The Captain’s Daughter (Alexander Pushkin, 1836) from Ekaterina Telfer, T. Keane and Milne Home respectively. The translation of Milne Home is downloaded from Gutenberg which is an open access project that offers free eBooks to public. The other translationsRead MoreCmp9500B Comprehensive Exam Solution1570 Words   |  7 Pagescom/shop/cmp9500b-comprehensive-exam-solution/ Question 1: Theory Theories play a vitally important role in guiding research and organizing and making sense of research findings. In spite of the great importance of theory-building and theory testing within your field of specialization, there is no generally accepted conception of what a theory is. Because your dissertation must contribute to theory, you must have a clear understanding of the variety of conceptions of theory, types of theories, and ways of contributing to theoryRead MoreClinical Log 2 : Clinical Assessment1655 Words   |  7 Pagesevidenced-based information, followed by the description and critique of the research article the writer tried to find the evidence. Then the essay is concluded with the reflection of learning through this assignment. Clinical Incident My preceptor is a full-time radiation therapist, conducting research to improve patients’ experience during their cancer treatment. Through the placement, I was able to participate in the actual research process by inputting data to an excel spreadsheet. The dataRead MoreImportance And Characteristics Of Literature Reviews1615 Words   |  7 PagesImportance and Characteristics of Literature Reviews A literature review examines existing research that is important to the work that you want to do. Literature reviews provide important background information and details about a specific research topic. Providing background information can help to demonstrate the importance of a topic, and can help to establish understanding of a subject or issue. An effective literature review also provides a space to elaborate on future work to be done on aRead MoreDeveloping a framework for critiquing health research5723 Words   |  23 Pagesnew framework for critiquing health-related research is presented in this article. More commonly used existing frameworks tend to have been formulated within the quantitative research paradigm. While frameworks for critiquing qualitative research exist, they are often complex and more suited to the needs of students engaged in advanced levels of study. The framework presented in this article addresses both quantitative and qualitative research within one list of questions. It is argued thatRead MoreNu310 the Effects of Crossed Leg on Blood Pressure Measurement1549 Words   |  7 PagesJuly16, 2013 Critiquing Design and Sampling Methodologies Identification of design Quantitative: Foster-Fitzpatrick and colleagues used a comparative-experimental method design that involved a non-probability sampling of 100 hypertensive males to determine if crossing the leg at the knee during blood pressure measurement has an effect on the patient’s blood pressure reading? In this experimental research the implementation of blood pressure (independent variable) will be monitored, and theRead MoreQualitative Critique: A Study1663 Words   |  7 PagesQualitative Critique The qualitative approach to research is anchored in the ideographic tradition and seeks to focus on the insiders world and the meanings that are attached to behaviour. While this is a general view of qualitative studies each qualitative design has unique foci. Hudacek (2008) examined the concept of caring in the work of nurses using a phenomenological design. Phenomenology gives attention to the subjective social reality. It gives value to the individual experience of the actorRead MoreMedian Nerve And Its Impact On Patients Perception Of Health Condition1646 Words   |  7 Pagesis a critique on the article Median nerve conduction impairment in patients with diabetes and its impact on patients’ perception of health condition, written by Lewko, PolityÅ„ska, Kochanowicz, Zarzycki, Mariak, Gà ³rska, and Krajewska-KuÅ‚ak (2013). Limited mobility is one of the components that patients with diabetes can face in their life. This article outlines the difficulty that diabetic patients are facing with their activity of daily living (ADL) due to impaired mobility. The research includedRead MoreResearch Critique, Part 1: Hospital Nurse Staffing and Patient Mortality, Nurse Burnout, and Job Dissatisfaction798 Words   |  4 PagesResearch Critique, Part 1: Hospital Nurse Staffing and Patient Mortality, Nurse Burnout, and Job Dissatisfaction Grand Canyon University: NRS-433V 06-04-2016 PROBLEM STATEMENT: The broad research problem leading to this study is the belief that nursing shortage in facilities leads to patient safety issues. The review of available literature on this topic shows strong evidence that lower nurse staffing levels in hospitals are associated with worse patient outcomes. Some of these outcomes include

Labeling - Packaging and Country of Origin An Essay

Question: Describe about An Essay Labeling, Packaging and Country of Origin. Answer: Labeling, Packaging and Country of Origin Australia The subject of marketing is multi faceted and there are number of components which go together on to make a marketing campaign effective. Marketing is a perennial process and continues to work for a company. It is important to mention that most of the bigger companies focus on working on different marketing strategies in order to gain competitive advantage in the market. There are different strategies which are being used by the leading multinational companies and this has helped them to understand the nerve of the market effectively (Berry et al., 2015). Marketing has also become one of the key subjects for the companies nowadays since there is also an aspect of ethics which work to make marketing campaigns successful. Packaging, labeling and country of origin has become some of the key aspects not only for marketing but also to establish one company as a brand (Kaynak et al., 2000). In the wake of the internet civilisation and the introduction of numerous other technologies common mass have become highly informed as well as ethical in purchasing their regular items and hence it becomes extremely important that labeling, packaging and country of origin is discussed effectively (Murphy, 2010). What has made labeling, packaging so important for companies nowadays? It is one concept that most of the management researchers and scholars have researched upon in the recent past and the answer to it is ethical consumerism. The concept of ethical consumerism is not completely different and is interwoven with the development of the packaging, labeling concepts. It is important to note that the concept of labeling and packaging has become essential and is given paramount importance by a lot of contemporary companies (Lencucha Drope, 2015). In Australia some of the bigger organisations like Coles which has been now taken over by the biggest company in Australia that is Wesfarmers, Woolworths Ltd et cetera all have focused on getting effective packaging in order to make good impression among the consumers. Packaging and labeling has become key issue for the company since nowadays consumers have become highly concerned about the environment and hence the concept of green packaging and labeling has come in the market. While packaging has been there in existence for more than centuries but labeling has emerged as important in the recent past (Spielmann, 2015). One of the new concepts which the consumers are now concerned with is the country of origin. Country of origin is basically the information about the food which the consumers want to know. It could be said that in the recent past this has become another key aspect which the companies has to focus on as consumers have become highly concerned about the daily items they purchase and all the information relevant to the product they are purchasing. With the increasing concerns for making businesses green and with consumers becoming highly concerned there are number of issues that have emerged in the regarding packaging, labeling and country of origin and the present study will take an opportunity to discuss these issues in this study (Lencucha Drope, 2015). There are some key issues that have rose to the occasion in the recent past regarding packaging, labeling. It is important to mention that with the world undergoing globalisation the world has faced number of crisis and one of the biggest problems is pollution (Lupien., 2005). This issue has emerged as initially packaging was not taken seriously. Plastic has always been the preferred material for packaging and this has been one of the key issues. Plastic is a material is a poor quality carbon material which affects the environment badly and eliminating this substance from use has been one of the problems for the company as it is one of the easiest way of packaging and also comes cheap (Gracia de-Magistris, 2016). Since packaging is one of the ways the consumers are attracted by the companies it is given paramount importance nowadays, and with the focus of attracting consumers companies often forget to be sustainable with the packaging systems. In the recent past there have been prob lems with packaging and hence the Australian Government has become proactive in eliminating the issues with packaging and make sure that the packaging is sustainable, green and favorable for the environment. Ethics has always been related to packaging problems (Smith, 2015). Another key issue that is related to packaging is the thought process of the company. Most of the companies nowadays try to lure customers with posh packaging and as well as labeling but often consumers are deceived with the products. Often what is exhibited through packaging is not given to customers and this is one of the key issues that have to be eliminated in order to get that much needed trust of the consumers (Skaczkowski et al., 2016). Nowadays consumers not only want to see effective packaging but also want freshness of the foods and often through packaging the consumers are cheated and hence this will have to be worked upon. Often to create brand, packaging is used to establish that but in order to compete in the market companies in Australia have failed to keep that promise. Recently this problem has become a key problem as the companies have not been able to handle it. On the other hand labeling has become one of the key marketing techniques especially through the labeling in the packaged products (Miller et al., 2016). Companies like Woolworths, Coles and Dick Smith Electronics have all focused on labeling their products effectively through which they have been able to attract consumers effectively. The present Australian Labeling law does not even allow the consumers to know all the information regarding the product which is also a key ethical issue (Del Giudice et al., 2016). The companies often fail to prov ide all the information which is a strategy that often misleads customers. These companies develop the graphics, labels and safety is not exhibited. For instance in Beverages sold in the stores do not share the information regarding the nutritional content, its size et cetera which is hardly displayed. This not only affects the consumers as it creates significant questions regarding the transparency of the companies. On the other hand it also poses serious threat to the safety as the packaging is focused on looking great but not securing the product and its supply (Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, 2012). In the recent past in Australia the attribute of origin of the country and environmental safety is stated as one of the biggest problems for marketers. Environmental issues with the packaging is companies in Australia in fact most of the companies in the world state the product is environment friendly but often the products do not have environment friendly attribute which is completely a wrong way to advertise a product and this is pretty common nowadays ( Van Sickle et al., 2003). In order to compete in the market the companies have failed to put up a good show with the material that they use for packing products. Plastic and paper are two mostly used components for packing and when on one side plastic is a non decomposable substance, on the other hand constant deforestation taking place for paper creation is also a problem (Nickxenophon.com.au, 2016). There have been number of initiatives that have been taken to stop this but when the organisations are not taking it seriously. Wast e products created through this kind of packaging creates trouble for effective waste management programs. In certain occasions the companies are not able to handle the ethical dilemma of packaging as in the recent times the consumers in Australia have become a concerned and aware. Origin of country of a product is not exhibited is a big offense which some companies including Woolworths have faced in the recent past. The origin of country in the labeling helps the consumers to let know where the product is actually from. In Australian Labeling law there is no clause which allows the consumers to know where the product is coming from (Skaczkowski et al., 2016). Under the current product law in Australia a product could be described as Made in Australia if around 51% of the product is transformed in Australia which includes packaging as well which means if a beverage has 90% liquid concentrate from Brazil or USA or UK it doesnt create any problem. As per Australian Competition and Con sumer Commission it is a legal offense to mislead consumers regarding origin of the country but it has been a consistent problem and issue (Carter et al., 2006). Hence it could be said that the key issues that is related to packaging and labeling are mainly ethical issues which some companies deliberately or some of them unintentionally do in order to grab customer attention and this has been a prevalent problem in Australia which has to be handled with strict laws and legislations (Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, 2012). To conclude the essay it is important to mention that Australian Competition and Consumer Commission has been optimistic with their initiatives for instance the organisation has laid down defined new labeling and country of origin strategy which is likely to change the scenario in the country regarding this prevalent problem related to issues of packaging and labeling and country of origin (Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, 2012). Hence finally it is important that since the market has grown rapidly and consumers have also become ethical it is important for the companies working in Australia to handle their labeling, packaging and country of origin successfully to gain competitive advantage (Goldsmith, 2016). References Berry, C., Mukherjee, A., Burton, S. and Howlett, E., 2015. A COOL effect: The direct and indirect impact of country-of-origin disclosures on purchase intentions for retail food products.Journal of Retailing,91(3), pp.533-542. Del Giudice, T., La Barbera, F., Vecchio, R. and Verneau, F., 2016.Anti-Waste Labeling and Consumer Willingness to Pay.Journal of International Food Agribusiness Marketing,28(2), pp.149-163. Goldsmith, E.B., 2016.Consumer economics: Issues and behaviors. Routledge. Gracia, A. and de-Magistris, T., 2016. Consumer preferences for food labeling: What ranks first?.Food Control,61, pp.39-46. Lencucha, R. and Drope, J., 2015. Plain packaging: an opportunity for improved international policy coherence?.Health promotion international,30(2), pp.281-290 Miller, S., Driver, T., Saunders, C. and Dalziel, P., 2016. High Value Nutrition: Country of Origin. Murphy, P.E., 2010. Marketing, Ethics of.Wiley Encyclopedia of Management. Skaczkowski, G., Durkin, S., Kashima, Y. and Wakefield, M., 2016. The effect of packaging, branding and labeling on the experience of unhealthy food and drink: A review.Appetite,99, pp.219-234. Smith, S.A., 2015.Evaluating Consumer Response to Environmental Labels on Packaging Using Eye-Tracking(Doctoral dissertation, Virginia Tech). Spielmann, N., 2015. Anything but typical: how consumers evaluate origin products based on their cues.International Journal of Wine Business Research,27(1), pp.23-39. Grure, G.P. and Rao, S.R., 2007.A review of international labeling policies of genetically modified food to evaluate Indias proposed rule. COUNTRY OF ORIGIN In-text:(Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, 2012) Your Bibliography:Australian Competition and Consumer Commission. (2012).Country of origin. [online] Available at: https://www.accc.gov.au/consumers/groceries/country-of-origin [Accessed 21 Aug. 2016]. OOD LABELLING SCANDAL | NICK XENOPHON - INDEPENDENT SENATOR FOR SOUTH AUSTRALIA In-text:(Nickxenophon.com.au, 2016) Your Bibliography:Nickxenophon.com.au. (2016).Food Labelling Scandal | Nick Xenophon - Independent Senator for South Australia. [online] Available at: https://www.nickxenophon.com.au/campaigns/food-labelling-scandal/ [Accessed 21 Aug. 2016].

Multiplexing and Data Rate Essay Example

Multiplexing and Data Rate Essay Multiplexing CHAPTER 4 Outline * Frequency Division Multiplexing(FDM) * Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing * Statistical Time Division Multiplexing * Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line(ADSL) Multiplexing * Set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single link * allows several transmission sources to share a larger transmission capacity Link = physical path Channel = portion of a link that carries a transmission between a given pairs of lines 2 CATEGORY OF MULTIPLEXING WDM FDM TDM ADSL Frequency Division Multiplexing * FDM – numerous signals are combined for ransmission on a single communications line or channel. Each signal is assigned a different frequency (subchannel) within the main channel. * Useful bandwidth of medium exceeds required bandwidth of channel * e. g. broadcast radio and cable television * Channel allocated even if no data Frequency Division Multiplexing Diagram * Each signal is modulated to a different carrie r frequency * Carrier frequencies separated by guard bands (unused bandwidth) – to prevent interference so signals do not overlap. 3 FDM System FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines signals. FDM process FDM Demultiplexing Example 1 Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 KHz. We need to combine three voice channels into a link with a bandwidth of 12 KHz, from 20 to 32 KHz. Show the configuration using the frequency domain without the use of guard bands. Solution Shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a different bandwidth, as shown in next figure Example 2 Five channels, each with a 100-KHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 KHz between the channels to prevent interference? Solution We will write a custom essay sample on Multiplexing and Data Rate specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Multiplexing and Data Rate specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Multiplexing and Data Rate specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This means that the required bandwidth is at least 5 x 100 + 4 x 10 = 540 KHz, as shown in next Figure. Example 3 Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1 Mbps, use a satellite channel of 1 MHz. Design an appropriate configuration using FDM Solution The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four channels, each channel having a 250-KHz bandwidth. Each digital channel of 1 Mbps is modulated such that each 4 bits are modulated to 1 Hz. One solution is 16- QAM modulation. Figure 6. 8 shows one possible configuration. Analog Carrier Systems ATT (USA) * Hierarchy of FDM schemes * Group 1. 12 voice channels (4kHz each) = 48kHz 2. Range 60kHz to 108kHz * Supergroup 1. 60 channel 2. FDM of 5 group signals on carriers between 420kHz and 612 kHz * Mastergroup 1. 10 supergroups Analog Hierarchy To maximize the efficiency infrastructure, multiplexed signals from lower bandwidth lines onto higher-bandwidth signals FDM of Th ree Voiceband Signals FDM Applications 1. Common used radio broadcasting AM and FM * AM (530 – 1700KHz) – shared with all radio stations * FM uses a wider band (88 – 108MHz) – each station needs more bandwidth, 200KHz 2. Television Broadcasting * Each TV channel has own bandwidth of 6 Mhz 3. 1st Generation of Cellular telephones * Voice signal 3KHz (300 – 3300Hz) channels * Bt = 10 x Bm , therefore each channel has 30KHz channels * each user has been allocated two 30KHz channel, therefore 60KHz. Example 4 The Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) uses two bands. The first band, 824 to 849 MHz, is used for sending; and 869 to 894 MHz is used for receiving. Each user has a bandwidth of 30 KHz in each direction. The 3- KHz voice is modulated using FM, creating 30 KHz of modulated signal. How many people can use their ellular phones simultaneously? Solution Each band is 25 MHz. If we divide 25 MHz into 30 KHz, we get 833. 33. In reality, the band is divided into 832 channels. Wavelength Division Multiplexing * Multiple beams of light at different frequency * Carried by optical fiber * A form of FDM (same concept) * Each colour of light (wavelength) carries separate data channel * 1997 Bell Labs * 10 0 beams * Each at 10 Gbps * Giving 1 terabit per second (Tbps) * Commercial systems of 160 channels of 10 Gbps now available * Lab systems (Alcatel) 256 channels at 39. 8 Gbps each * 10. 1 Tbps * Over 100km WDM Operation Same general architecture as other FDM * Number of sources generating laser beams at different frequencies * Multiplexer consolidates sources for transmission over single fiber * Optical amplifiers amplify all wavelengths * Typically tens of km apart * Demux separates channels at the destination * Mostly 1550nm wavelength range * Was 200MHz per channel * Now 50GHz Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing * DWDM * No official or standard definition * Implies more channels more closely spaced that WDM * 200GHz or less TDM digital process that allows several connections to share the high bandwidth of a link ach connection occupies a portion of time in the link TDM is a digital multiplexing technique to combine data. TDM : Time Slots and Frames In a TDM, the data rate of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration is n times shorter. Time Division Multiplexing Example 5 Four 1-Kbps connections are multiplexed together. A unit is 1 bit. Find : (1) the duration of 1 bit before multiplexing, (2) the transmission rate of the link, (3) the duration of a time slot, and (4) the duration of a frame? Solution We can answer the questions as follows: 1. The duration of 1 bit is 1/1 Kbps, or 0. 001 s (1 ms). 2. The rate of the link is 4 Kbps. 3. The duration of each time slot 1/4 ms or 250 ms. 4. The duration of a frame 1 ms. Interleaving †¢ switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed but opposite direction †¢process of sending a unit data onto the path when the connection on the multiplexing and de-multiplexing is open Example 6 Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each channel sends 100 bytes/s and we multiplex 1 byte per channel, show the frame traveling on the link, the size of the frame, the duration of a frame, the frame rate, and the bit rate for the link. Solution The multiplexer is shown in Figure 6 Example 7 A multiplexer combines four 100-Kbps channels using a time slot of 2 bits. Show the output with four arbitrary inputs. What is the frame rate? What is the frame duration? What is the bit rate? What is the bit duration? Solution Figure 7 shows the output for four arbitrary inputs. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing * Possible when data rate of medium exceeds data rate of digital signal to be transmitted * Multiple digital signals interleaved of each signal in time during transmission * Interleaving can be at bit level of blocks * Time slots preassigned to sources and fixed Time slots allocated even if no data * Time slots do not have to be evenly distributed amongst sources Synchronous TDM System TDM Link Control * No headers and trailers * Data link control protocols not needed * Flow control * Data rate of multiplexed line is fixed * If one channel receiver can not receive data, the * others must carry on * The corresponding source must be quenched * This leaves empty slots * Error control Errors are detected and handled by individual channel systems Data Link Control on TDM Framing †¢Time slot length = transmitter buffer length †¢Each frame contains a cycle of time slot Framing bits follow a pattern to ensure incoming stream synchronized with demux to separate time slots accurately * No flag or SYNC characters bracketing TDM frames to manage the overall TDM link * Must provide synchronizing mechanism * Added digit framing * One control bit added to each TDM frame * Looks like another channel â€Å"control channel† * Identifiable bit pattern used on control channel * e. g. alternating bit pattern 01010101†¦unlikely to be sustained on a data channel * Can compare incoming bit patterns on each * channel with sync pattern * If pattern not match, successive bit position re search until persist over multiple frame * When establish, receiver continue monitoring the framing bit channel * If the pattern break, the receiver must aga in enter a framing search mode Example 8 We have four sources, each creating 250 characters per second. If the interleaved unit is a character and 1 synchronizing bit is added to each frame, find (1) the data rate of each source, (2) the duration of each character in each source, (3) the frame rate, (4) the duration of each frame, (5) the number of bits in each frame, and (6) the data rate of the link. Solution Answer as follows: 1. The data rate of each source is 250 x 8 = 2000 bps = 2 Kbps. 2. The duration of a character is 1/250 s = 4 ms. 3. The link needs to send 250 frames per second. 4. The duration of each frame is 1/250 = 4 ms. 5. Each frame is 4 x 8 + 1 = 33 bits. 6. The data rate of the link is 250 x 33 = 8250 bps. Example 9 Two channels, one with a bit rate of 100 Kbps and another with a bit rate of 200 Kbps, are to be multiplexed. How this can be achieved? What is the frame rate? What is the frame duration? What is the bit rate of the link? Solution We can allocate one slot to the first channel and two slots to the second channel. Each frame carries 3 bits. The frame rate is 100,000 frames per second because it carries 1 bit from the first channel. The frame duration is 1/100,000 = 10 ms. The bit rate is 100,000 frames/s x 3 bits/frame = 300 Kbps. Pulse Stuffing * Problem Synchronizing various data sources * Each source has separate clock, variation among clock cause loss synchronization * Data rates from different sources not related by simple rational number * Solution Pulse Stuffing as effective remedy * Outgoing data rate (excluding framing bits) higher than sum of incoming rates * Stuff extra dummy bits or pulses into each ncoming signal until it matches local clock * Stuffed pulses inserted at fixed locations in frame and removed at demultiplexer TDM of Analog and Digital Sources Digital Carrier Systems * Long distance carrier system * Designed to transmit voice signal over high capacity transmission lonks usuch as optical fiber, coax and microwave * ATT developed hierarchy of TDM structures of various capacities * USA/Canada/Japan use one system * ITU-T use a similar (but different) system * US system based on DS-1 format which Multiplexes 24 channels * Each frame has 8 bits per channel plus one raming bit, 24 x 8 +1 =193 bits per frame Digital Carrier Systems (2) * For voice each channel contains one word of digitized data (using PCM at 8000 samples per sec) * Data rate 8000193 = 1. 544Mbps * Five out of six frames have 8 bit PCM samples * Sixth frame is 7 bit PCM word plus signaling bit * Signaling bits form stream for each channel containing control and routing info * Same format for digital data * 23 channels of data * 7 bits per frame plus indicator bit for data or systems control * 24th channel is sync DS Hierarchy TDM Carrier Standard North American and International TDM Carrier Standards Statistical TDM * In Synchronous TDM many slots are wasted * Statistical TDM allocates time slots dynamically based on demand * Multiplexer scans input lines and collects data until frame full * Data rate on line lower than aggregate rates of input lines * Improve efficiency is to allow multiple data resources to be packed in one single frame Statistical TDM Frame Formats Performance * Output data rate less than aggregate input data rates cause by average amount of input capacity of multiplexed line * Difficulty: May cause problems during peak periods when the input exceed capacity * Solution Buffer inputs to hold temporary excess input * Keep buffer size to minimum to reduce delay Cable Modem Outline * To support data transfer to and from a cable modem, two channels from cable TV provider dedicated to data transfer * One in each direction * Each channel shared by number of subscribers * Scheme needed to allocate capacity * Statistical TDM Cable Modem Operation Downstream * Cable sc heduler delivers data in small packets * If more than one subscriber active, each gets fraction of downstream capacity †¢ May get 500kbps to 1. 5Mbps * Also used to allocate upstream time slots to subscribers Upstream * User requests timeslots on shared upstream channel †¢ Dedicated slots for this * Headend scheduler sends back assignment of future time slots to subscriber Cable Modem Scheme Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line ADSL Link between subscriber and network * Local loop Uses currently installed twisted pair cable * Can carry broader spectrum * 1 MHz or more ADSL Design Asymmetric -Greater capacity downstream than upstream -Expected for video on demand and related services – high speed access -Users require higher capacity for downstream than upstream Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) element of ADSL strategy †¢ Reserve lowest 25kHz for voice – Plain old telephone service (POTS) – Voice carried only 0 – 4KHz band – Additional bandwidth for prevent crosstalk between voice and data channel †¢ Use echo cancellation or FDM to give two bands – smaller upstream band and larger downstream band †¢ Use FDM within upstream and downstream bands – Single bit stream multiple parallel bit streams – each portion carried separate frequency band Range up to 5. 5km -Depending of diameter cables and quality ADSL Channel Configuration Discrete Multitone * DMT * Use multiple carrier signals at different requencies * Sending some bits on each channel * Available transmission band =4kHz subchannels * Send test signal and use subchannels with better signal to noise ratio * ASL/DMT design employ 256 downstream subchannels at 4kHz (60kbps) * Possible to transmit at rate15. 36MHz * Impairments bring this down to 1. 5Mbps to 9Mbps DTM Bits Per Channel Allocation †¢Each channel can carry data rate from 0-60 Kbps †¢Shows increasing attenuation and decreasing signalto- noise ratio at higher frequencies DMT Transmitter xDSL * High data rate DSL * Single line DSL * Very high data rate DSL